Fallibility of Human Memory
A human brain that is white and translucent on a black background.
Memory from a more scientific perspective is the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information into one of the following systems: sensory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. In general, memories are first encoded when sensory information is processed by the brain’s sensory areas and then sent to the hippocampus to integrate into an experience. While the information is in the hippocampus, this structure acts as a temporary, short-term storage and organization center for new memories. This process is known as consolidation.The final step is storage which happens via synaptic consolidation, neural connection strengthening, and memories are then transferred to the neocortex for long-term retention. Finally, when we need the information, retrieval, the memory is rebuilt, oftentimes taking data from unconscious long-term storage back to our conscious awareness (Zacks et al., 2022). This is where we need to stop for a moment to level our knowledge. Memory is a constructive process, not a literal reproduction of the past, which can be prone to errors and distortions (Schacter, 2012; Schacter & Thakral, 2024). Because memories are pulled together from different fragments or pieces of information, that is where our memories become subject to distortion, misinformation, or misidentification. With that being said, this constructive process is functional, allowing us to use our past experiences to help us imagine future scenarios.
And this is where we are going to pick up in this blog post. We are going to look at the fallibility of human memory. There are, however, two more science topics we need to cover before moving on. When it comes to constructing our memory representation we need knowledge or representations of the world in general, which is different from knowledge or representations about specific experiences (Zacks et al., 2022). And the second topic is that of schemata or scripts which arise from repeated experiences with events that a person then builds up representations of those experiences (Zacks et al., 2022). So, now what about these two science facts? Schemata or scripts, from previous experiences or cultural attitudes, influence how we encode and recall events, which can lead to us remembering what should have happened instead of what actually happened.
Human memory is a fascinating topic! And, we are only going to scratch the surface in this post. If this is a topic of interest, take the time to learn more about memory. There is so much more to learn! We will end this post with a few other quick points to ponder about the fallibility of memory.
The Forgetting Curve
The Forgetting Curve, talked about by Hermann Ebbinghaus, reveals that the sharpest decline in memory happens right after learning (Murre & Dros, 2015). If we don’t actively rehearse or it isn’t an experience with high emotional significance, the brain being an energy hog, naturally prunes information that it doesn’t deem as essential to save metabolic energy.
The Misinformation Effect
The Misinformation Effect, pioneered by Dr. Elizabeth Loftus, occurs when people’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information, leading questions, source monitoring error (Example: thinking they saw an event but only heard about it from another), false memory, or social conformity (Example: adjusting memories to match incorrect reports, especially when the sources are identified as credible or numerous) (Ayers & Reder, 1998).
Flashbulb Memories
Have you ever heard of flashbulb memories? These memories are autobiographical memories that incorporate the circumstances where one learned of a public event like a national tragedy or personal accident (Hirst & Phelps, 2016). Flashbulb memories sometimes feel like they are “burned” into our brains with perfect clarity. When it comes to these types of memories they are more durable, however, their accuracy does decline even though people’s confidence in them remains high.
Imagination Inflation
Imagination inflation occurs when people’s subjective confidence that an event or experience has happened enlarges after they imagine it happening (Dudek & Polczyk, 2024). When someone repeatedly imagines an event or experiences it becomes more familiar which allows the brain to misattribute this familiarity to real-life experiences. Imagination inflation often occurs from source-monitoring errors when we don’t distinguish between internal thoughts and external realities.
To wrap up the post for today, we can bring in body memory just for fun. Somatic memory is the physical, sensory, and emotional imprint of past experiences often showing up as chronic pain, tension, or intense emotional reactions to triggers. This concept is more often talked about in trauma work. Our bodies remember as well. Just not in the same way that our brains do.
take action today moment:
Memories are special. They allow us to remember our family, friends, and events that mean something to us. Treasure your memories! They are special. And, also remember that our memories are not perfect. We could have inaccurate memories, and we need to hold that piece so that we can own our mistakes and also be aware if other people try to influence our memory.
Learn More About the summer solstice:
Harvard Thinking: How does memory work (and not work)?
References
Ayers, M. S., & Reder, L. M. (1998). A theoretical review of the misinformation effect: Predictions from an activation-based memory model. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(1), 1-21.
Dudek, I., & Polczyk, R. (2024). Memory distrust and imagination inflation: A registered report. PloS One, 19(2), e0297774. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297774
Hirst, W., & Phelps, E. A. (2016). Flashbulb memories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(1), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415622487
Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve. PloS One, 10(7), e0120644. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120644
Sridhar, S., Khamaj, A., & Asthana, M. K. (2023). Cognitive neuroscience perspective on memory: Overview and summary. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 17, 1217093. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1217093
Schacter D. L. (2012). Constructive memory: Past and future. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2012.14.1/dschacter
Schacter, D. L., & Thakral, P. P. (2024). Constructive memory and conscious experience. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 36(8), 1567–1577. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_02201
Zacks, J. M., Bezdek, M. A., & Cunningham, G. E. (2022). Knowledge and the reliability of constructive memory. Memory (Hove, England), 30(1), 22–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2020.1871022