Motivational Theories in Sports Psychology
The words “Fuel Your Passion” in neon lighting.
What is motivation? Why should we care about motivation? Motivation is what drives us to accomplish our goals. Researchers are always interested in learning about different concepts, including motivation and why we want to reach our goals. Two different theories have been proposed based on some of the research coming out of the field of sports psychology. Let’s learn a little bit about two of these theories to see if they can be of benefit to you.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
SDT is based on three basic psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. These basic needs are what is assumed to drive motivated behavior (Deci & Ryan 1985). There are also six types of regulations: nonregulation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, integrated regulation, and intrinsic regulation that live on a continuum.
On one end of the spectrum is the least motivated/self-determined individuals, while the most motivated/self-determined occupy the other. To help describe the continuum, the least self-determined types of motivation are called amotivation which is defined as lacking either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan 2000). This theory also talks about the types of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Under extrinsic motivation is external regulation or motivation, which is where rewards or punishment come into play. Taking another step on the continuum is introjection, where people’s egos are engaged via praise or avoidance of shame (Mariager-Anderson et al., 2016). The next step finds identification regulation, which speaks to how important an activity is to the person participating. Finally, the continuum ends with integrated regulation. As the most autonomous form, it provides a description of people’s complex goals. Internal forms of motivation need to be acknowledged in addition to the external as the last type of regulation (Mariager-Anderson et al., 2016). This form represents people’s full and free engagement, and the people who are considered the most self-determined without the need for reward or constraints (Deci & Ryan 2000).
Strengths and Weaknesses
SDT does have some great strengths as a theory. One of these strengths is how the theory looks from a needs perspective - competence, relatedness, autonomy. We all have needs that must be taken into account in terms of motivation. My favorite out of these needs is the need for autonomy, as it brings to mind Erickson’s model to some degree. Another strength is how the theory uses continuums. That acknowledges that things in this world are not black and white and that there can be varying degrees. Continuum thinking, as a type of thinking, comes online later in development versus early on in development where thinking tends to be more concrete. Additionally, there is room for both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Being able to hold space for both is essential - especially as it relates to human development.
Every good theory does have weaknesses and SDT is no exception. When it comes to the three basic psychological needs there have been other needs introduced that may also be of benefit in evaluating motivation. For example, take the eight psychological needs model that includes the following: affiliation, power, cognitive, achievement, autonomy, competence, closure, and meaning needs. Some of these needs feel relevant to why athletes might feel motivated. More weaknesses are discussed below.
Sport Commitment Model
Introduced in 1993, the Sport Commitment Model consists of five determinants of commitment: enjoyment, investments, opportunities, alternatives, and social constraints (Scanlan et al., 1993). Scanlan et al. (2016) further expanded the model and introduced two possible types of commitments, enthusiastic and constraints types. Additionally, a few sources were determined that could hopefully predict sport commitment: sport enjoyment, social constraints, valuable opportunities, other priorities; and two types of personal investments, social support and desire to excel.
Strengths and Weaknesses
As a model, the Sport Commitment Model also has some good strengths. For example, it takes into account social constraints. That is essential. No one lives in a vacuum and social constraints are a reality. Furthermore, the model acknowledges that there are many different factors influencing commitment while keeping it “simple” to follow, which would make it potentially easier to explain to a client.
In terms of weakness, there are some here as well. Strengths and challenges lie side by side. In this case, the strength of simplicity is also a weakness because potential influences are not being accounted for, whether that be within the model or external factors. More weaknesses are discussed below.
General Weaknesses and Challenges for Both Theories/Models
No model or theory can account for every possible influence. That is not possible. It is potentially in the overlap or the missing pieces that we can learn more and potentially open ourselves up to other possibilities. Another piece I want to bring up is the influence of trauma. Neither of these theories/models really truly take into account trauma and how that plays into motivation, especially when thinking about resilience in the context of motivation. This leads me to the potential inclusion of neuroscience into the models/theories. While there is some accounting for development, it would be interesting to see how much neuroscience could actually support what is being said. The last thought is about how the pandemic has drastically changed the world. While we are still researching its impacts, I would be curious to see how the pandemic has alerted people’s motivations and if that has any impact in theories/models.
take action today moment:
Sport psychologists and sport and performance professionals study models in their training. It can also be helpful to athletes, coaches, and even non-athletes to understand what models exist. Why? Because it can provide context and framing from which to look at motivation. Translation… It can give us words to use to potentially help describe our experiences or understand what may be motivating us and allows us to reflect. So, take some time today to reflect on your motivations for sports, the arts, your career, etc. and see what you can learn from the experience.
Learn More About Motivation:
Motivation in Sports Psychology
Extrinsic Rewards and Motivation
References
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "What" and "Why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01
Mariager-Anderson, K., Cort, R., & Thomsen, R. (2016). ‘In reality, I motivate myself!’. ‘Low-skilled’ workers’ motivation: between individual and societal narratives. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 44(2), 171-184. doi: 10.1080/03069885.2016.1145191
Rottensteiner, C., Laakso, L., Pihlaja, T., & Konttinen, N. (2013). Personal reasons for withdrawal from team sports and the influence of significant others among youth athletes. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 8(1), 19-32.
Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Simons, J. P., Schmidt, G. W., & Keeler, B. (1993). An introduction to the Sport Commitment Model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 1-15. doi:10.1123/jsep.15.1.1.
Scanlan, T. K., Chow, G. M., Sousa, C., Scanlan, L. A., & Knifsend, C. A. (2016). The development of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 (English version). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 233-246. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.002.